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Protohistoric Period
The script written by humans during this period could not be read but written evidence has been found. The source of information about this period is also archaeological evidence. The Indus Valley Civilization is housed in it. The protohistoric period, or ancient period, is the period of the beginning of the rise of human civilization.
Much of human life during this period is unknown, as historians do not have direct evidence for this time. However, during this period, humans developed new technologies to meet needs such as free organization, hunting-gathering, playing water, and burning fire. For example, stone tools were used to make weapons and tools. Cultural development in the form of language, music, and art also began during this period.
Indus Valley Civilization
This civilization was settled on the banks of the Indus River, hence it was called Indus Valley Civilization. The first excavation to get this information was from Harappa. Therefore it is also known as Harappan civilization. This civilization was spread over approximately 13 lakh square kilometers. The shape of this civilization is triangular.
Information about this civilization was given by Charles Mason in 1826 AD and it was surveyed by James Cunningham in 1853 AD. Lord Curzon established the Department of Archeology in 1904 AD. Whose general director was Sir John Marshall. The name of this civilization was given by John Marshall. The first excavation of this civilization was done by Dayaram Sahni. The world’s first urban civilization was the Indus Valley civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization that dominated much of western and independent India. It was especially located in the Indus and Ghaggar – Hakri river valley area. Major features of this civilization include structured cities, courtesans and depictions of animals and birds. Its language has not yet been understood, but its local script has been discovered. This civilization was associated with an organized social structure, trade system, and progressive cultural tradition.
The eastern limit of this civilization was in Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh. Which was on the banks of Hindon river. It was excavated under the leadership of Yagyadata Sharma.
Its western border was in Sutkangdor, Pakistan, on the banks of the Dashk River.
Its northern border was on the banks of Chenab river in Manda, Kashmir. It was excavated by Jagapati Joshi in 1982 AD.
Its southern border was on the banks of the Pravara River in Daimabad, Maharashtra. Evidence of a metal chariot has been found from here.
Place and Time:
The major center of the Indus Valley Civilization was located along the Indus River, in what is now Pakistan and parts of India.
Urban Structure:
The structure of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization was extremely regular. Their main features were a grid plan of streets, buildings made of gold and bark, public baths, markets, and places for social gatherings.
Agriculture and Economy
Agriculture and trade were the fundamental parts of the Indus Valley civilization. Its people cultivated crops like wheat, millet, barley, and mustard. The trade included gold, silver, clay, and small items of the highest quality.
Religious and Cultural life:
Religion and culture had a huge contribution in the Indus Valley civilization. People worshiped deities like Shiva, Dwara, Yoga, and Prajapati. They used to follow religious rituals in wedding processions and festivals.
Language and Writing:
The language of the Indus Valley Civilization has not been recorded, but the seals found from Mohenjodaro are the inscribed sites of writing. A special number and structure of words is shown in it.
Remains:
Remains of the Indus Valley Civilization are found at various places, such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal. From these remains we get details of the social, economic, and cultural life of this civilization.
Major sites of Indus Valley Civilization
| S.N. | Major sites | Location | Country | Excavator | Excavation year | River |
| 1 | Kalibanga | Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan, India | India | B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar | 1961-69 AD | Saraswati |
| 2 | Dhoulavira | Kutch district of Gujarat, Indi | India | Ravindra Singh Visht | 1990-91 AD | |
| 3 | Lothal | Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India | India | Ranganath Rao | 1955 AD | Bhogwa |
| 4 | Banwali | Hisar district of Haryana, India | India | Ravindra Singh Visht | 1974 AD | Saraswati (Rangoi) |
| 5 | Ropad | Ropar district of Punjab, India | India | Yagyadata Sharma | 1953-56 AD | Satluj |
| 6 | Rangpur | Kathiawar district of Gujarat, India | India | Ranganath Rao | 1953-54 AD | Madar |
| 7 | Alamgirpur | Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh, India | India | Yagyadata Sharma | 1958 AD | Hindon |
| 8 | Harappa | Montgomery district of Pakistan | Pakistan | Dayaram Sahni and Madho Swaroop Vats | 1921 AD | Raavi |
| 9 | Mohen Jodaro | Larkana district of Pakistan | Pakistan | Rakhaldas Banerjee | 1922 AD | Indus |
| 10 | Chanhudaro | Sindh province of Pakistan | Pakistan | Gopal Majumdar | 1931 AD | Indus |
| 11 | Kotdiji | Sindh province of Pakistan | Pakistan | Fazal Ahmed Khan | 1953 AD | Indus |
| 12 | Sutkangedor | sea coast of Makran, Pakistan | Pakistan | R. L. Stein | 1927 AD | Dashk |
| 13 | Sutkakoh | sea coast of Makran, Pakistan | Pakistan | George Dales | 1962 AD | Shadikor |
Major sites of Indus Valley Civilization
Kalibanga
This site is located in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan, India. It is situated on the banks of river Saraswati. It was discovered by Alamand. It was excavated by B. B. Lal and B. Of. Thapar did it in 1961-69 AD. Kalibanga means “black clay bangle”. Bricks, bangles, plowed field, plow and havan kund have been found from here.
Dhoulavira
This site is located in Kutch district of Gujarat, India. Its excavation was done by Ravindra Singh Visht in 1990-91 AD. This is the largest site of the Indus Valley civilization.
Lothal
This place is located in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. It is situated on the banks of Bhogwa river. It was excavated by Ranganath Rao in 1955 AD. It is a major port site of the Indus Valley civilization. Here the doors of the houses opened towards the streets. Evidence of Godiwada has been found from here. A seal of Persia was found here which shows that foreign trade also took place from here. A couple burials have been found here which is an indication of the practice of Sati.
Banwali
This site is located in Hisar district of Haryana, India. It was excavated by Ravindra Singh Visht in 1974 AD. This place is situated on the banks of Saraswati (Rangoi) river. There is no drainage system found here due to which the houses here are soaked. The roads here were crooked.
Ropad
This site is located in Ropar district of Punjab, India. It is situated on the banks of Satluj river. It was excavated by Yagyadata Sharma in 1953-56 AD. Along with humans, dead bodies of their pet animals have also been found from this site.
Rangpur
This site is located in Kathiawar district of Gujarat, India. It is situated on the banks of Madar River. It was excavated by Ranganath Rao in 1953-54 AD. The husk of wealth has been found from here.
Alamgirpur
It is located in Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is situated on the banks of Hindon River. It was excavated by Yagyadat Sharma in 1958 AD. It is a prime example of the ancient terrestriality of the Indus Valley civilization. Evidence of the production of many non-residential materials, tools, and metals of the Indus Valley Civilization has been found here. Apart from this, the tombs and fossils found here have further increased the importance of this area.
Harappa
This site is located in Montgomery district of Pakistan. It was excavated by Dayaram Sahni and Madho Swaroop Vats in 1921 AD. It was situated on the banks of Ravi river.
Many objects have been found here, which include potter’s wheel, granary, labor house, idol of Mother Goddess, wooden mortar, wooden coffin, R.H. 37 cemeteries, elephant skull and Swastika symbol are prominent. Silver was first used by the people here.
Mohen Jodaro
This site is located in Larkana district of Pakistan. It was situated on the banks of Indus river. It was excavated by Rakhaldas Banerjee in 1922. It is the largest city of the Indus Valley civilization. A huge mound of dead people was found here. The granary of Mohenjodaro is the largest building of the Indus Valley civilization.
A large number of Swastika seals have been found here which are made of alabaster. Many things have been found in the excavation from here, among which the priest’s house, huge bathroom, cotton clothes, the widest road, idol of Pashupati Shiva, heap of copper, well in the house, granary, Swastika symbol, auditorium and bronze dancer statue are the main ones. Is .
Chanhudaro
It is located in Sindh province of Pakistan. This place was situated on the banks of Indus river. It was excavated by Gopal Majumdar in 1931 AD. This is the only city which is without a fort. It is an industrial city. Many objects have been found from the excavation here, among which make-up material, mirror, doll, lipstick, beads, needle, decorated brick and the print of a dog chasing a cat are prominent.
Kotdiji
This site is located in Sindh province of Pakistan. This place is also situated on the banks of Indus river. It was excavated by Fazal Ahmed Khan in 1953 AD. Kotdiji is considered an important site of the Indus Valley Civilization. Many highly significant discoveries at this site have highlighted the rich and rich religious and cultural heritage of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Several excavations located at Kotdiji have revealed various aspects of the Indus Valley civilization, such as inscriptions, sculptures, and ancient collections of objects. Apart from this, excavations have also been done at the source of the Indus River near Kotdiji, which is one of the important and earliest sites of this civilization.
Sutkangedor
This place is located along the sea coast of Makran, Pakistan. It is situated on the banks of Dashk River. It was excavated by R. L. Stein did it in 1927. The excavations carried out at this site are considered to be one of the most important residential sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The ruins found at Sutkangedor contain the remains of grand buildings, markets, public spaces and resident houses. Excavations here help in understanding diverse aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as their economic, social, and religious lifestyle.
Sutkakoh
This place is also located along the sea coast of Makran, Pakistan. It is situated on the banks of Shadikor River. It was excavated by George Dales in 1962.
Features of Indus Valley Civilization
This civilization was an urban civilization. The main basis of its economy was agriculture. These roads intersected each other at right angles. The roads here were built from east to west, which used to get cleaned automatically due to the wind. The drains here were covered.
The society here was divided into four classes: scholars, warriors, traders-craftsmen and labourers. Their society was matriarchal. The script of this civilization was pictographic which was written from right to left. A picture of a one-horned animal has been found on most of the seals here. The people here were not familiar with iron. The people of this civilization are considered to be the first producers of cotton.
Reasons for the decline of Indus Valley Civilization
The reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization are not clear. Drought and water crisis in many rural areas led to a decline in farming and water related activities, which affected the economy of this civilization. The invasion of the northern Indian regions by invading tribes and emperors weakened the Indus Valley Civilization.
Stagnation of development in the economy and social system, extraordinary regulations of foreign trade, and interstellar warfare also affected the civilization. Dissatisfaction, division and internal disputes in the society weakened the stability of the Indus Valley civilization. Flood is considered to be the main and biggest reason for the decline of this civilization. The reasons for the decline of this civilization have also been given by some scholars which are as follows
| Scholar | Reasons for the fall |
| Garden Child and Wheeler | External and Aryan invasions |
| John Marshall Ernest and S. R. Rao | Flood |
| Arel Stein, Amaland | Climate change |
| M.R. Sahni | Geological changes/flooding |
| John Marshall | Administrative laxity |
| K. U. R. Kennedy | Natural calamity |
Life of people of Indus Valley Civilization
The life of the people of Indus Valley Civilization was commercially and socially organized. Their main livelihood was based on agriculture and trade. They cultivated their own crops, such as barley, wheat, and millet. They also practiced animal husbandry, raising cows, sheep, goats, and river fish. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were prosperous and industry, art, and cultural activities contributed significantly to their rural life. Their construction art was characteristic of all the cities found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
The social life of the people of Indus Valley Civilization was organized. There was a caste system in their society, in which Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra varnas existed. Traditionally, women in Indus society had a superior position, and were given an important role in society. The people of the Indus civilization were religious and spiritual. His main religiosity was based on peace and always worshiping Adipurusha. They worshiped deities like Pashupatinath, Shiva, and Agni.
There is no known record of the language of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, but they were written in a language of letters, which can be found in the form of sandul or mohar. Overall, the life of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization was prosperous, organized, religious. , and was socially organized. This civilization contributed significantly to the development of ancient Indian society, and its heritage even today helps us understand its importance.
The people of the Indus Valley Civilization mainly worshiped the ancient Vedic deities. Prominent deities among them included Pashupatinath, Shiva, and Agni. The spirit of fire was also important in religious rituals as a fire-breather. In addition, the people of the Indus Valley Civilization also worshiped natural deities such as the Sun, Earth, Water, and Wind. Their religious beliefs were based on peace, prosperity, and respect for nature.
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